Criminal Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 13

Criminal Law - Essay Example Such a duty of care arises as a result of the law. The question whether the facts of a case establish the existence of the duty of care is to be determined by the jury. If the duty’s existence is disputed, the jury ought to be directed that if certain facts are established, then in law a duty would arise. Existence of other facts would negative the duty ( Husak,1987). The Court of Appeal dismissed an appeal by Gemma Evans against her conviction at Swansea Crown Court. The Lord Chief Justice, giving the judgment of the court, upheld the conviction of the appellant. The court found that the appellant, together with her mother, was convicted of manslaughter by gross negligence following the death of her half-sister, Carly, who was aged 16, who had injected herself with heroin which was supplied by the appellant. Carly developed symptoms similar to those of heroin overdose but the appellant and the mother failed to seek medical assistance as they feared that they themselves would all get into trouble. They thus decided to put Carly to bed, hoping that she would somehow recover which she never did and was found dead the following morning due to heroin poisoning. The appellant had remained at the house from the time when her half sister injected herself, throughout the evening and night. She had also witnessed the signs of the effect of the drug injected by Carly and that she realized that her half sister’s condition was dire. The appellant and her mother also thought that they were responsible for the care of Carly after her taking heroin. The question was whether the appellant was under a duty to take reasonable steps for the safety of Carly once she realized that the drug she had procured for her was having a potentially deadly impact on her health. This was despite the fact that their relationship lacked the features of familial duty or responsibility which marked her mother’s relationship with Carly, when omission

Workplace Romance in the Hospitality Industry Research Paper

Workplace Romance in the Hospitality Industry - Research Paper Example As a result of this constant sharing of working space there remains a high chance of the workers in the hospitality industry getting romantically involved with each other. Every worker spends a considerable amount of the day in his or her office. Above that the workers in the hospitality industry work under stressful conditions like round the day duties and living up to the demands of people of different kinds. As a result seeking supports from co-workers and consequent blooming of romance between them is prevalent trend in this industry. In any office environment the co-workers share a lot of feeling like experiences, interests, fears, setbacks and achievements with each other. Therefore it can be seen that the factors responsible for giving birth to romance are always present in the working environment. The constant sharing of emotions may lead to the development of emotional and romantic leanings on each other. The usual office romance varies from casual flings and affairs to the more serious relationships. In the hospitality industry there are also many instances of sexual harassment between co-workers and the scholars have distinguished the workplace romance from sexual advances. Workplaces romances in have been defined as relationship based on mutual desire and physical attraction between the workers of the same organization. It is also necessary that the people have found each other through the course of their work and the relationship is consensual. For romance between workers separated by hierarchy it is important that the romance spreads beyond the traditional employer employee relationship. Workers from all age group have been found to be associated with workplace romance. However the highest probability of romance between colleagues lies in the age group from 35 to 44. In a survey almost 44% of the interviewee in this age group has admitted to date their co-workers (Pearce, 2010). Some very important points of discussion about workplace romance have been the causes for the development of the romance, the effect of office romance on the peers and environment of the office as well as on the people involved directly and the managerial decision or attitude towards accepting the romance (Odgers, 2004, pp 221-222; Burke, Mattis, 2005 p 153; Sias, 2009, p 140). It will be relevant to mention that many of the organizations have a defined policy on workplace romance though no such references could be found directly for the hospitality industry. It has often been debated whether workplace romance leads to better performance of the employees and also the effect of romance on the other co-workers Reasons and the Consequences of Office Romance According to Fiona M. Wilson (2007) the study of romance in office as a sociological subject started 30 years ago. Such studies were of immense interest for the management who wanted to know the consequence on the organization as a result of romances between the workers. According to Peter Corser (20 11), a person spends a third of their day in their office. Under such a situation the author finds it natural for romance to brew between the co-workers. Moreover it can also be mentioned here that for people working in a team the skills, experiences and the knowledge are very similar. Therefore there is a high chance of people sharing common interests and therefore finding each other attractive. However he has also noted that many organizations have discouraging policies for such romances. The organization has

The Biome of Hawaii Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Biome of Hawaii - Essay Example In addition, the website provided the average temperature: 75 degrees to 88 degrees Fahrenheit from April to November, and 68 degrees to 80 degrees Fahrenheit from December to March, with an average water temperature of 74 degrees Fahrenheit. According to Encarta Online Encyclopedia (2007), eight main islands, namely Hawaii, Maui, Lanai, Molokai, Kahoolawe, Oahu, Niihau and Kauai take almost the state's entire area of 28,311 square kilometer, with 98 sq. m. of inland water. The other part is composed of islets, coral reefs, and shoals. Thus, it is considered to be one of the smallest state in America. Hawaii did not escape the bad effects of deforestation, pollution, global warming, and human selfishness. The Nature Conservancy (2008) cries, "Climate change is already affecting our lives and the places we live, and has the potential to dramatically impact the lives of future generations." The plant life in the islands are mostly sets of coconut palm trees which are usually seen near the beaches, uncommon plants such as mesquite, koa haole, cactus, drought resistant grasses, wiliwili, naio, bastard sandalwood, niihau, kahoolawe, kukui, lantana, and alien weeds.

Film Analysis of Dead Man Walking Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Film Analysis of Dead Man Walking - Term Paper Example In order to discuss these critically important principles and relate them to the film under analysis, first the particular scene to which each of them relates the most will be identified. Then, that principle will be scrutinized to appreciate what literature has to say about it and finally, the extent to which each principle relates to the scene described will be critically analyzed. A- Deindividuation Scene: After going through many sessions with Poncelet, Sister Helen develops a special relationship with him and also becomes his confidant. She strongly believes in the value of forgiveness and repeatedly attempts to inculcate the same belief in him in many earlier scenes. It is because of that emphasis that near the end of the film just sometime before Poncelet is about to be executed for his crime, he confides in Sister Helen that he did in fact kill the boy and rape the girl despite having denied these deeds before. In this scene, he takes full responsibility for the cruel demise of both teenagers. What is deindividuation? Deindividuation is popularly described as marked loss of self-awareness to the point that a person becomes uncaring about social code of conduct or norms of the society. The loss of self-awareness is so potent that a person refuses to take responsibility for any action taken by him/her. ... Such people have no regard for others’ lives and do not seem to mind the idea of them bringing suffering or acute distress in other people’s lives. Deindividuation also compels people to violate their personal norms because external norms become more powerful (Pastorino and Doyle-Portillo 473) and engage in activities they would not care about otherwise. It is associated with unbridled and offensive behavior because it lowers the sense of self-awareness leaving a person unable to conscientiously evaluate his/her actions. How the scene conforms to the principle of deindividuation? This scene illustrates how deindividuation played a destructive role in motivating Poncelet to murder two innocent people. Because of wrong influence in the form of Carl Vitello and his own weaknesses, he violated his person code of conduct and lived by the external norms which stimulated him to commit the crime. He had no self-awareness in that moment and even after that, he is not seen willin g to take responsibility for his heinous actions. Before this scene, he always admitted being high on drugs but blamed Vitello for killing the teenagers leaving himself out of the main action. His personal norm was to lie about the real situation and he tried to live by that norm. However, when the moment of execution finally dawns on him, he loses self-awareness and the will to protect himself. Here, the external norms of Sister Helen related to honesty and taking responsibility for one’s actions become more powerful. B- Schemas Scene: Near the end of the movie, Sister Helen tells Pocelet that he is a son of God and should expect forgiveness because while he is being executed, Christ would be here.

Judicial Decisions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Judicial Decisions - Essay Example In addition to this there seems to be differing schemes protecting both the landlord and the tenants found in the distinction of the equitable and legal leases. The distinction becomes extremely important as if an interest in land is found to be a lease then one is protected by the Rent Acts, while the licence seems to encompass only limited rights as according to the terms of the arrangement between the parties with minimal state intervention. It is one of the fundamental themes in accepting what a lease is that the period identified in the arrangement between the landlord and the occupier is for a fixed term. In Lace V. Chantler [1944], it was held that a lease for the duration of a war was not a certain period as one could not surely envisage when the war would be over, thus this would be a licence revocable when the war would be over. However, even a short term, for instance a month to month agreement would seem to be satisfying the requirements of the LPA 1925 as each party holds power by notice to determine the continuity of the lease at the end of each month and this saves the arrangement from being uncertain. (Prudential Assurance Co. Ltd v London Residuary Board [1992]) Even time sharing agreements have been held to be tenancies recently (Cottage Holiday Associates Ltd v. Customs and Excise Commissioners [1983], Smallwood V. Sheppards [1895]). Perhaps even here, the underlying fact remains the intention of the par ty which could be evidenced by virtue of the mode of payment and the time period even though this is not an essential element (Ashburn Anstall v. Arnold [1989]). The concept of exclusive possession is also a very important one in the determination of a lease. Essentially, where the occupier could exclude anyone at all and is free to use the land as he wants subject to certain restrictions, this arrangement could easily be termed as a lease. Where a landlord had rights reserved to enter the premises, empty meters and change linen, it was held to be a licence (Appah v. Parncliffe Investments [1964]. A similar analogy could be drawn with the occupation of rooms in hotels and motels. It is normally quite clear to the occupier that he does not have the rights of a tenant with regards to the room he is occupying and his rights only stem from and are limited to the service contract concluded between him and the hotel, etc. Hence, the traditional distinction between a lease and a licenc

Programme Schedule Essay Example for Free

Programme Schedule Essay It should be noted that although I have used Sky One as an example of a typical evenings viewing on Sky, this ignores the other channels available through the satellite broadcaster. But in doing so I am illustrating the channels provision in terms of target audience, rejection of a public service ethos (to educate, inform and entertain), and its ability to house hour after hour of populist programming on one channel (complimenting Sky One is a mass of channels providing a wide range of programming (see Sky World and Family Pack, appendix 2)). What is obvious from this comparison is that the public service broadcasters are providing a schedule which caters for the widest possible audience, within the structure of two channels (BBC1/BBC2/RTE1/N2). There is the argument that, instead of attempting to provide an output representative of the whole of its audience, which on the face of it seems impossible, it should specialise into more defined areas. Some complain that money being spent on paying comedians for programmes such as `Have I Got News For You` (Friday 21:00, BBC), could be better spent on this specialisation, however those arguments often come down to ones particular taste, rather than any informed argument. What is it that public service broadcasters provide, which are deemed in the `public interest`, that those without such a remit fail to provide? It can surely not, as outlined previously be choice. Diversity, a term often associated with public service broadcasters, is no longer solely applicable to the latter as diverseness is arguably a product of greater choice. It could be argued however that the choice and diversity available from terrestrial public service broadcasters is of a higher quality and is therefore of greater value to an interested audience. The pluralistic nature of public service broadcasting requires that they take into account the sociocultural segmentation of society, but this is often difficult because of the limited terrestrial channel space available. However, what it does do is provide a common domain, arguably important in the context of social interaction. The ability of the audience to discuss for example, the previous nights episode of Eastenders (BBC1) in the playground or at work should not be underestimated. It could be argued that a wider range of viewing could bring a greater level of social ideas and concepts, yet this ignores the `information rich/information poor` argument, and the resulting divide which has yet to be addressed. The digression by both RTE and the BBC into digital media does not, in the current climate, resolve the problem of catering for such a large audience on a limited broadcasting frequency, simply because digital television is not widespread enough at this time. The conundrum for both organisations therefore, is that in order that they become both more diverse and competitive, their energies must go into the creation and promotion of their digital services so as to have a foothold in the future of digital broadcasting. And here lies the rub, At the moment there does not exist a platform solely intended for the broadcast of the BBCs digital programmes. It is available through NTL, Sky and ITV Digital, and therefore, the BBC is indirectly promoting the formats that have reduced their audience share and contributed to calls for its privatisation. The argument hinges on how the PSBs intend to supply their digital services in the future. They may provide a set-top box through which their channels can be received, or fund their place on the current EPG (Electronic Programme Guide), available through SkyDigital. RTE will begin broadcasting on the SkyDigital platform from April 2002, which has emphasised its intention to fulfil its public service remit by extending its audience reach to as many parts of Ireland as possible. However both NTL and Chorus, (cable companies operating in Ireland) have complained that RTE paid a reported i 6 million for its inclusion on the SkyGuide EPG (Electronic Programme Guide), whereas RTE is hosted for free, and importantly, compulsorily by the two cable operators. If Chorus Digital were to pull the plug on RTE, the low subscription rate would not cause significant damage to the public service broadcaster. However, NTL, who have a much higher subscription, and therefore attract more advertising, offers a greater problem. If NTL removed RTE from its output, advertising revenues would fall dramatically, indeed, it has already fallen in 2001 by i 12 million; 15. 5 million less than projected for 2002 and RTE would inevitably become bankrupt. But in doing so, NTL would almost certainly have its licence revoked, which it would appear, provides the greatest chance of survival for RTE. As I have discussed earlier, the introduction of satellite broadcasting into the UK and Ireland has had a detrimental impact upon the public service broadcasters viewing figures. The information below illustrates the year-on-year increase and uptake of cable and satellite subscription, paralleled with a year-on-year decrease in the BBCs viewing figures. RTE has been grouped in the same category as cable and satellite, however RTE would represent only a fraction of the increase. (NB. Shares before 1996 have been rounded to nearest whole number)

Leadership And Change Management At General Motors Commerce Essay

Leadership And Change Management At General Motors Commerce Essay General Motors (GM), one of the worlds largest automakers, was initially founded by William Durant in 1902 and held a remarkable presence in the automobile industry for almost a century. It is predominantly engaged in the designing, manufacturing and marketing of cars, trucks, and other automobile parts in North America, Europe, Latin America, and Asia Pacific regions. Additionally, GM also provides vehicle safety, security and information services through GM OnStar. This company sells not only cars but also trucks under several brands such as Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, GM Daewoo, Holden, Hummer, Opel, Pontiac, Saab, Saturn and Vauxhall in 31 different countries (Datamonitor). The main headquarters is located in Detroit, Michigan where over 200,000 people are currently employed globally. Its largest market is in the U.S, followed by China, Brazil, the UK, Canada, Russia and finally Germany. Globally, the automobiles and components industry was severely affected by the global ec onomic downturn in 2008. Unfortunately, the recession in the global economy harmed GMs business by adversely affecting its revenues, results of operations, cash flows, and financial condition. According to Isidore (2009) in CNN Money, General Motors filed for bankruptcy on June 1, 2009. . This move was once viewed as unimaginable, since it was one of the worlds leading automakers. However, after years of losses and market share declines topped by a major plunge in sales, bankruptcy was inevitable. A new company financed by the US Treasury stepped in and purchased most of GMs assets and trademarks. By July 10, 2009, the companys name changed from General Motors Corporation to General Motors Company. Consequently, the company experienced major changes such as massive job cuts, closure of a dozen facilities, emergence of new leaders, etc. In order to evaluate the radical change undergone by General Motors, both internal and external factors leading up to the change must be identified. Several pressures such as economic conditions, competition, government intervention, technology, resource availability, and people can cause change (Porter, Smith Fagg, 2006). In order to be successful, organizations increasingly need to be scanning the environment to anticipate the appropriate change action. More importantly, they need to be proactive in their attitude to change. In the case of General Motors, the causes of change were economic conditions on a global scale and unavailability of financial resources. Even though there was a resistance to change, GM had to swiftly evaluate the situation and devise new strategies on how to move forward. The success of the transition of an organizational change is mainly dependent upon the leadership of senior management (Porter, Smith Fagg, 2006). The Chief Executive Officer at GM, Mr. Fritz Henderson, was replaced by Mr. Edward Whitacre in 2009. He was the former Chairman and CEO at ATT from 1990-2007. Mr. Whitacre serves on the Boa rd of the Institute for International Economics and the Boards of Burlington Northern Santa Fe, Exxon Mobil and the PGA Tour (Datamonitor-GM). Furthermore, he is also involved in The Business Council. Even though leaders of General Motors are still trying to implement stability, the transition leading up to the radical change could have been more efficient and effective. LEADERSHIP THEORIES AND APPLICATION TO GM 1.1 Leadership Theories: Amongst the many definitions of a leader, Bryman (1992, p. 3) describes The leader is characterized by a strong drive for responsibility and task completion, vigor and persistence in the pursuit of goals, venturesomeness and originality in problem solving, drive to exercise initiative in social situations, self confidence and sense of personal identity, willingness to accept the consequences of his or her decisions and actions, readiness to absorb interpersonal stress, willingness to tolerate frustration and delay, ability to influence other peoples behavior and the capacity to structure social interaction systems to the purpose at hand. A true leader has the ability to motivate his or her followers. While the early leadership theories focused on the leaders individual characteristics and behavior, later theories explored the duties of the followers and the environment contributing to the success of a leader. Up to the late 1940s, it was believed that leadership qualities were innate primarily by men or passed along from generation to generation. Whether a leader is born or made was the controversial question that arose in the past. Historical evidence can justify that many effective leaders seem to be born with innate aptitudes. This is known as the Traits theory, which has three broad types of traits. The first is primarily based on the physical factors such as appearance, physique, height, etc. Secondly, the traits reflected on the persons abilities including intelligence, fluency of speech, and knowledge. The third type covers a wide range of personality characteristics such as conservatism, self-confidence, dominance, and emotional control (Bryman, 1992). On the contrary, the Style theory describes that employees will perform better depending on the adopted style of their leader (Porter, Smith Fagg, 2006). In other words, the same group of people will behave differently according to the leaders style. A type of leadership that follows the style theory is transactional leadership, based upon contingency where reward or punishment is given depending on the subordinates performance. The leader designates a specific task, and the subordinate is fully responsible to carry it out despite the circumstances. The emphasis is based on goal clarification, the setting of tasks and objectives, and organizational rewards and punishments. While this approach still remains popular, certain limitations exist such as the assumption that the subordinate is strictly motivated by money and reward (Dave Paper). On the other hand, transformational leadership theory is centralized on the development of commitment and motivation among followers. A transforma tional leader creates a vision and eventually persuades his or her followers to buy in in order to transform the performance of the organization (Porter, Smith Fagg, 2006). Even though people wont readily accept a radical vision, the transformational leader will do whatever it takes to get every person on board. This concept is based on a relational contract, where subordinates willingly contribute beyond the requirements. Both transactional and transformational are equally important to help increase organizational competitiveness in an era of global competition (Mohamed Rafiuddin, 2010). Yet, another leadership theory is that of Vroom and Yettons decision-making model. According to Porter, Smith and Fagg (2006, p.76), All leaders are considered as decision-makers, and their effectiveness can be determined by examining the quality of decisions taken over time. The most appropriate style of leadership is flexible which depends upon the subordinates preferred style, the situation and the task facing the leader. Vroom and Yetton defined five key types of leadership where two are autocratic, two are consultative and one is group-based. The way how the leader obtains information or the way how the leader makes a decision is different for each type. Situational factors influence which method is considered the most pertinent. While the path-goal theory of leadership is similar to the Vroom and Yettons model, many differences exist. A characteristic of the path-goal theory also involves a participative leadership, where the leaders consult with the followers and take their id eas into account for decision-making. However, the leaders are expected to guide, encourage, and support their subordinates in achieving the goals. For example, they are required to clear the path by removing roadblocks so that the subordinates know which way to go (Daves Paper). Moreover, the leaders are to be supportive by showing concern for the followers welfare and creating a friendly working environment. Another similarity to the Vroom and Yettons model is that the path-goal oriented leader will also vary in his or her approach depending on the situation. Finally, a term used to characterize brilliant forms of influence, exceptional, gifted, and even heroic is known as charismatic leadership. According to Galvin, Balkundi and Walkman (2010, p.477), Subordinates who view a leader as charismatic will tend to see the leader and his or her vision as core their own identity and will be willing to sacrifice so as to benefit the collective and achieve the goals and vision of the leader. Some distinguishing attributes possessed by the charismatic leader are confidence, power, success, and influence. A transformational leader can also be qualified to be charismatic and vice versa. Since a transformational leader instills the vision onto the subordinates, he or she can do so in a charismatic manner. 1.2 Leadership in General Motors Leadership models and theories should be used as frameworks for developing personal styles, and self-reflecting. While various theories exist, a successful leader should know their industries, have astute insights, and are willing to induce the changes necessary to their organization (Van Wart, 2010). Furthermore, they are an inspirational figure, where they can influence their followers in the course of events. In the case of GM, the former chief executive, Mr. Fritz Henderson was asked to step down from the position. Mr. Henderson had worked along the former GM president, Mr. Rick Wagoner, throughout his career. According to Madslien (2009), This could pose serious problems for GM, which may now find it hard to find not only a replacement for the charismatic car guy. However, concerns such as the fact that Mr. Henderson was clinging on to power in the name of stability were expressed. Additionally, he was eagerly trying to rebuild the company based on the traditional model that GM used prior the crisis. Based on this analysis, it shows that the former CEO was not apt for changeability. He can be categorized as being a transactional leader, where a clear structure must be set in place and subordinates are required to just follow. Fritz Henderson could also have been path-goal oriented, where he would direct the subordinates, tell them what to do, and provide appropriate guidelines. The new CEO stated, Mr. Henderson had done a remarkable job in leading the company through an unprecedented period of challenge and change (General Motors BBC article, 2009). On the contrary, Mr. Ed Whitacre, who replaced Fritz Henderson, is more of a transformational and charismatic leader. The newly-appointed CEO, who previously ran the ATT telecoms company, was brought in as chairman by the Obama administration. General Motors needed an outsider, who had no attachments, as the leader. When he accepted the post, he announced that sweeping management changes needed to be made at GM (Luft, 2009). The fact that Mr. Whitacre reorganized and restructured departments three days after taking over demonstrates that he is both transformational and path-goal oriented. He managed to guide his followers in how to achieve the goals and objectives set in place for the future GM. Moreover, he had a vision to recreate General Motors and put passion and energy into everything. This type of leader constantly sells the vision to his followers. With all the changes that GM was experiencing, Whitacre realized the workforce was rattled and immediately addressed it by sending a companywide email. According to Bloomberg Businessweek, the email reassured the employees that the major leadership changes are all behind them (2009). Even though Whitacre might be somewhat naÃÆ'Â ¯ve in the time frame of product development amongst other areas, he strategically designates other people to overlook the areas he lacks in knowledge. Furthermore, he wants to give people more responsibility and authority deeper in the organization and hold them accountable for their doings (Luft, 2009). In decision-making, this leader follows Group procedure, where he shares the problems with followers and seeks consensus agreement. Essentially, as a transformational, charismatic, path-goal oriented leader, Mr. Whitacre will try to ensure a smooth and successful transition for GM as a company and for the employees. General Motors new management team will focus more on leadership duties and responsibilities to meet their objectives to design, build and sell the worlds best vehicle. 2.0 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FACTORS Organizations are expected to experience changes due to the instability and inconsistency of the environment. Organizational change is usually provoked by some driving force such as decrease in productivity and services, substantial cuts in funding, major new markets and clients, etc (Barbara and Fleming, 2006). The reasons why and how changes occur can only be understood if an internal and external analysis of the company is performed. The Porters five forces, PESTLE and SWOT analysis, and internal resources can be used to conduct an environmental scanning; hence, objectives and strategies can be formulated and used to implement the changes. 2.1 PESTLE Analysis PESTLE analysis is a framework comprised of political, economical, social, technological, legal, and environmental components. From the beginning, General Motors has always been affected by the law and government regulations. Most of the regulations are associated with the environment and concerns for safe automobiles. For example, the EU recently restricted the usage of heavy metals due to environmental issues. Additionally, the vehicle emissions regulations have also become stricter (Datamonitor: Automobile). Economically, since 2008, the global automotive industry has been severely affected by the major global credit crisis where both North America and Europe encountered recession. This in turn caused unstable oil prices, decreases in employment rate and decrease in consumer spending. Other essential components are the sociological and environment factors. With the increasing interest of the environment worldwide specifically in the US and Europe, General Motors has taken a firm s tance in Corporate Social Responsibility in all its business practices. This includes the operation of the factories and business offices, usage of renewable and recyclable materials, production of fuel-efficient cars and trucks, and less emission of greenhouse gases (GM website). Additionally, society has become relatively materialistic and driven by status quo. General Motors is aware of this; therefore, it would target each market depending on status and income. The last component in the PESTLE analysis is the technological component. The rise of the internet worldwide has affected not only the automobile industry, but many others as well. GM can benefit from the increasing usage of the internet, because more and more consumers can access its website and view products more easily. 2.2 Porters Five Forces Porters five forces of competition framework can be used to analyze the intensity of competition and the level of profitability (Grant, 2005). These five forces include competition from substitutes, entrants, power of suppliers, power of buyers, and established rivals. In replace of purchasing automobiles, consumers can use public transportation such as buses, trains, and bicycles. Moreover, consumers can also choose from other automobile products that are not GM-related making the threat of substitutes high-risk. High barriers to entry such as large capital allow the threat of new entrants very low-risk. In the automobile industry, the bargaining power of suppliers is considered low, since these suppliers rely on the automakers to purchase the raw materials such as steel, paint, glass, aluminum, etc. In regards to the bargaining power of the buyers, the risk is high. Customers can choose not only from other automobile manufacturers, but also from many automobile dealers that exist. Finally, there is a high rivalry existing among the competitors of General Motors. The major competitors include Toyota Motor Corporation, Honda Motor Co., Ford Motor Company, Mazda Motor Corporation and several other automakers (Datamonitor- GM) 2.3 Internal Analysis According to Porter, Smith, and Fagg (2006, p.393), Environmental analysis also requires an examination of the organizations internal environment. Internal analysis is concerned with the resources and capabilities that an organization must seek to understand before it can pursue any form of strategy. An internal audit includes the organizations human, financial and other resources which contribute to supporting its strategies. General Motors employs more than 200,000 people worldwide. Moreover, it has created a business environment based upon mutual respect, responsibility, and understanding. One of GM goals is to give employees more responsibility and authority and hold them accountable (GM website). In other words, this company believes in empowering its employees. Additionally, GM understands the effectiveness of performance when personal life and work are linked. Given that General Motors is considered to be one of the largest employers in the world, the benefits offered are just as grand. Amongst some of these benefits are medical plan including dental, investment options, life insurance, paid holidays and discounts on GM products and services. Financially, GM leaders and employees are committed to building its market share, revenue, earnings and cash flow with the goal of paying back its loans by 2010. In the year ended 2009 the estimated worldwide market share was recorded as 11.6%. Furthermore, vehicle sales in the US fell drastically since the peak in 2007 (GM Annual report). 2.4 SWOT Analysis Once an audit of external and internal influences has been conducted, a framework such as SWOT analysis can be used to link an organizations resources and capabilities. Then, the implications of strategies can be identified (Porter, Smith and Fagg, 2006). SWOT represents strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. It is the most widely used analytical management technique. 1. Strengths: General Motors not only has a strong brand portfolio, but also has a wide portfolio of regional brands like Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Hummer, Pontiac, Saab, and Saturn. The strong brand portfolio spanning the global market allows GM to gain a competitive advantage. Also, since it has an extensive geographic presence in 207 locations, General Motors is able to spread its risks across the global markets. 2. Weaknesses: GM incurred significant losses from 2005 through 2008 due to operations and restructurings. The companys liquidity position along with its operating performance was negatively affected by the industry conditions. Additionally, there was a major decline in sales in major business segments. 3. Opportunities: The increase in the global truck market experienced a growth during 2004 and 2008 and will continuously have a steady growth for the future. This represents an opportunity for General Motors to capitalize on this market which can positively affect its revenues and profits. Moreover, there has been a worldwide demand for hybrid electric vehicles. Therefore, General Motors has been focusing on developing new high technology products for these eco-friendly automobiles. Consequently, this would boost the demand for GMs products. 4. Threats: Due to the ongoing global recession, GMs business would be significantly affected in its revenues, results of operations, cash flow and financial condition. More importantly, the global automotive industry is extremely competitive, where General Motors are facing strong competitors. As a result, there would be an adverse effect on vehicle pricing and market share. 3.0 CHANGE THEORIES AND APPLICATION TO GM According to Palmer (2006, p.50), Variety of pressures on managers: the environment, discovery of deviations from standards, new desires and visions of the future or the fundamental nature of organizations themselves. He also continues on stating that the result of change is, ironically, stability. While these pressures for change are constant, advantages of a changing organization are better integration, teamwork, common values, and mindsets. All these benefits contribute to achieving a better organization with more efficient and effective outcomes. John Kotter explains that some forces for change are greater economic integration, maturation and slowdown, technology, and fall of socialist countries and their reorientation toward capitalist economies (Palmer, 2006). 3.1 Change Theories Several change management theories describe the process of developing a planned approach to the changes taken place in an organization. The first model is John Kotters 8 steps, which was published in 1995 in the Harvard Business Review. Firstly, establishing the need for urgency refers to performing market analysis by determining the problems and opportunities. The second step, ensuring there is a powerful change group to guide the change can be performed by creating team structures to help drive the change and making sure the teams have sufficient power to guide the change. Thirdly, developing a vision can be carried out by providing focus for change. Then, the vision must be communicated by using multiple channels to constantly communicate this vision. The next step is empowering the staff by removing organizational policies and structures that inhibit the achievement of the vision. Once this is done, the organization must empower the staff which help support the need for change an d provide motivation. Consolidating gains is the seventh step. This refers to rewarding those who engage positively with the change. Last but not least, the change must be linked to organizational performance and leadership (Palmer, 2006). However, while the Kotters 8 steps outline the management of an organizational change, the Bridges Transition Model suggests that change will not be successful if transition doesnt occur. In this case, transition is defined as the ending of something, which is the first phase. The second phase is the neutral zone, which is a confusing state between the old reality and the new. During this phase, people are not ready or comfortable to welcome the new beginnings. Much importance must be given during this stage, because the change might be jeopardized if the organization decides to prematurely escape. However, if the neutral zone is completed successfully, many opportunities for creative transformation can be presented. The final phase is acceptance of the new beginnings and identification with the new situation (Bridges, 1995). Similarly, another model of change that was developed in the earlier days is that of Lewins. His model also consisted of three phases like Bridges Transition Model. The first phase is identified as unfreezing, where it involved dismantling the existing mindset of the people. For example, a change in the organizational culture would take place in this stage. According to Brown (1998, p.6), Organizational culture refers to norms, attitudes, values, and beliefs that conduct the behavior of members of an organization with each other and with external stakeholders. Changing is the second phase of Lewins model where actual changes are implemented so the organization progresses to the new position. Just like Bridges, this phase is also accounted as the hardest to overcome. In the last phase also known as refreezing, the changes are stabilized. They have been accepted and become the new norm. At this point, the need for recruiting new staff untainted by old habits might be fitting for the or ganization (Senior and Fleming, 2006). 3.2 Changes in General Motors In 2007, General Motors declared record sales of more than nine million vehicles for the third consecutive year. Despite that this company had such an achievement, environmental turbulences such as the global recession in 2009 forced GM to declare bankruptcy. This was considered as the biggest failure of an industrial company in US history (BBC website- GM ready to file). According to the news article GM ready to file for bankruptcy, GM, once the largest company in the world, has been losing market share since the early 1980s (2009). Some causes leading up to this disastrous event are high production costs and collapse in credit markets and consumer spending. Furthermore, the automaker was slow in moving away from the production of gas-guzzling SUVs when consumers were looking for more fuel-efficient vehicles (BBC-Website, 2009). Even though restructuring of the company was necessary, the transition and resistance to change were posed challenging. Using Bridges Transition Model, the radical change that occurred in General Motors can be evaluated. In the first phase, the organization realized there were major discrepancies between its goals and the current system of operation. Consequently, General Motors accepted the fact that it was the end of their glorious era and placed its fate in the hands of the US government. The new GM left the government holding 60% of the companys equity (Clark, 2009). Since this automaker was an iconic symbol of the American auto industry, it was necessary to preserve it. General Motors then entered the second phase, the neutral zone, of the Bridges Transition Model. Herein, the company faced many barriers and resistance to the changes that were taking place. According to Bridges, management and employees would feel anxious, disoriented, resentful, and self-protective (Bridges, 1995). At this stage, it is natural for people to feel confused between rushing forward and going back to the old ways. Th e GM official website states that the company has a new global operating structure, a leaner and more streamlined leadership team, and a restructured Board of Directors (GM Website). The designated leaders take a crucial role in the neutral zone. The newly-appointed CEO Ed Whitacre exercised his authority by drawing up a new management blueprint to improve accountability and responsibility for key market performance within General Motors (Luft, 2009). Inevitably, during the restructuring and reorganizing, employers were fearful for their jobs. Bridges (1995, p.41) advises, Communications help to keep people feeling included in and connected to the organization. On March 31, 2010 Whitacre decided to send out a companywide email to ease the anxiety and anticipation that had been developing during the change. In his email, he wrote, A smart company changes and adapts to the needs of the business. So, while there will always be individual moves within GM, I want to reassure you that the major leadership changes are behind us (Welch, 2010). Once General Motors was out of the neutral zone, the company was able to indulge in the new beginnings that have been much anticipated for. Even though the new GM decided to get rid of Hummer, Saturn, Pontiac, and Saab, it still held on to the most profitable brands such as Chevrolet, Cadillac, Buick, and GMC. Additionally, it will continue to press on for structural cost reduction and a healthier balance sheet with a significant lower debt. Most importantly, the automaker will strictly concentrate on investing in innovative products and new technology. 3.3 Resistance to Change While the new GM managed to leave the neutral zone of the change process, it was prolonged because of the resistance to change. Some reasons why individuals resist change are routine, security, economic factors, fear of the unknown and selective information processing (Porter, Smith and Fagg, 2006). In the case of General Motors, management and employees were confined to the traditional way of the companys operations. Even more so, they knew that restructuring and layoffs were going to take place; therefore, they lost their sense of security and allowed anxiety to take over. 4.0 LINKAGE OF LEADERSHIP AND CHANGE According to Porter, Smith and Fagg (2006, p.301), The change agent should be at the center of any change process, and one of the most important jobs for him or her to do is to develop a good relationship between all the parties involved in the change process. This is vital to ensure that commitment, trust and mutual respect develop. The change agent is also known as the leader of the organization. During the transition of the old GM to the new GM, Mr. Ed Whitacre was designated as the CEO. He immediately recognized the importance of organizational development by changing its structure and the people within it. A successful change is accompanied by the redistribution of power within the company so that the decision-making is moved towards shared power (Porter, Smith and Fagg, 2006). CEO Whitacre alongside other directors and managers had to work together as a team in order to carry out the changes successfully. They may even have had to find themselves adopting the role as a transfor mational leader. As leaders, they are responsible in having a clear sense of direction in order to keep the organization moving on track towards the agreed objectives and goals. However, leaders cannot accomplish a successful change on their own. They need to also depend on the subordinates, which can be achieved by encouraging teamwork, empowerment, and acceptance of certain failures (Porter, Smith and Fagg, 2006). 5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS / CONCLUSION While General Motors was able to fast-track the change process with the right leadership in place, certain actions could have been done differently to maximize efficiency and minimize resistance. Palmer suggests that resistance to change can be managed by communication to the followers, participation from everyone involved, negotiation between the leaders and the subordinates, and explicit or implicit coercion (Palmer, 2006). Although Mr. Whitacre automatically sent out a companywide email when the company was in turmoil, it was not necessarily effective. Alternatively, he could have done a video conferencing with all the employees worldwide. In this manner, not only would his body language be viewed, but also would he be able to display emotions. According to Bridges (1995, p.41), Communications help to keep people feeling included in and connected to the organization. Without communications in place, wrong information can be multiplied and people develop apathy. Moreover, since the new General Motors wanted to revive its innovativeness, it is recommended for the company to expose people to new aspects of their tasks and opportunities for collaboration (Vermeulen, Puranam and Gulati, 2010). Also, while an organization is in neutral zone, creativity should be encouraged. This can be fostered by providing training in the techniques of discovery and innovation, encouraging experiment, embracing losses or setbacks, and looking for opportunities to brainstorm new answers to old problems (Bridges, 1995). All these must be carried out by the changing agents or the leaders. In conclusion, General Motors was able to identify their disparities and firmly decided to change the organization in order to accomplish its goals and objectives. More importantly, it acted quickly and and realized that current leadership talent did not have the capabilities to deal with the radical change. As a result, General Motors was assigned a charismatic, transformational leader to guide it through change, solve complex problems, and build for the future.